Tape
The tape used in
me
condition of distances builds in a thin layer of chromium
steel or aluminum
, or a carbon fiber woven together by a polymer
d 
and Teflon (the latest). The most used tape measures are 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 50 and 100
meters.
The last two are called a surveyor and built only of steel, because the force needed to tighten it could result in the extension of the same if they were built in a material less resistant to traction. The smallest are
centimeter and even millimeter
some with marks and numbers painted or engraved on the surface of the tape, while surveying are marked by copper or brass rivets fixed to the tape every 2 dm
, using a rivet slightly larger for odd numbers and a small oval numbered to even numbers. They are usually
protected in a bun made of brass or PVC. The surveyor has two brass handles at each end for precise tensioning and may remove them completely from the wheel for comfort ..
tape measurement
A common problem when measuring a distance with a tape, measure the distance is greater than the length of the tape. To overcome this disadvantage, in surveying
applies what is called "Normal Operating Procedure (SOP).
The procediemiento it helps with
milestones and a game of cards or ag
s
UJA surveying (small steel spikes, usually ten, together with a transport ring.)
With Normal Operating Procedure milestones materializes line to be measured, as follows: place a marker at each end of the segment to be measured and then line up (roughly) one or more milestones, the sub-segments so obtained are less than the length of tape available. Once materialized
the line where the tape will, a member of the measuring equipment (from now on the "front"), take a tip tape and play cards, and began to travel the segment to be measured, where the tape is finished will be aligned (by eye) on the other team member (from here on the "defender"), where he nailed the first tab inside the handle that holds in its hands. This procedure is repeated as many times as necessary to reach the other end of the segment.
As progress is made, the striker will be pinning their chips and put defender handle the extreme outside of the chip found, lifting it and putting it into another ring of transport when the striker has lined up and nailed a new tab. In the end they will have the chips that the defender takes his ring (Which will be the number of "bands") and multiply them by the length of the tape to it will add the remaining segment is between the last tab and the pull of arrival, giving the total measured distance.
The Theodolite :
is the universal instrument and is mainly used for measuring horizontal and vertical angles, to measure distances and to prolong stay alienation. The theodolite has a telescope capable of rotating around a vertical axis and a horizontal one is usually equipped with a magnetic compass is mounted on a tripod. The first theodolite was built circa 1571 by Leonard Digges English. It is used for measuring horizontal and vertical angles, and to prolong
lectrotipo alienation, the tellurometer and Distomap.
Stitches:
are generally about 25 to 35 cms in length, are made of steel rod and provided at a tip end and the other of a ring that serves as their head.
LEVELS:
A level is an instrument that represents a reference to us respect to a horizontal plane.
This device helps to determine the difference in elevation between two points with the help of a State concerned.
The simplest level is the
hose level is a transparent tube, water is introduced and both ends are lifted by a simple equilibrium, the water is at the same level at both ends.
The hand level is too simple an instrument, the horizontal reference is a glass bubble or drop, clisímetro is an improved version incorporating a hand level to make enabling metal transporter tilt measurements and not just drop.
The fixed level is the sophisticated version of the hand level, this bra instead of ERSE
hand is placed on a tripod The lens has more gains and the drop is much more sensitive.
This level presents a problem, and that as the device operates must be continually checking and especially when turning, the drop remained focused, this is done with 4 leveling screws which move in pairs, and always maintaining voltage for the appliance does not move ..
This problem was solved with the level swing, which remains a fixed level, but has a screw to adjust the drop each time a measurement is made, greatly simplifying the use of 4 leveling screws, one level is a more accurate tilting level, but its accuracy is mostly just to drop and a plane parallel plate .. A breakthrough was
achieved with the introduction of automatic balancing, leading to
Automatic Level, its use is based on a gravity pendulum, this steady state is always upright, and with the help of a prism, this will give us the horizontal reference we are looking for. This level has a bubble circular (porthole) that can not be completely focused, but the automatic compensator does just that, to compensate, This advance was so helpful, which was incorporated into more precise theodolites and total stations, even if their performance can vary, the principle remains the same.
For the advantages automatic levels are most easily found on the market, in features that are be observed when comparing instruments is the magnification of the lens that can be 20x to 32x, this means that both magnifies the image to see through the level, if the distances are short (less than 10 meters) may not be transcendent, but when looking for a graduate State Authority to the millimeter to 100 meters if it is important to have a more level increases, or if it requires great precision even short distances would recommend the 32 increases. Specifications is that the number of increases is linked to the accuracy of the equipment, expressed in millimeters per kilometer round level, so if such a level is accurate to ± 1.5 mm / km, meaning that in a Leveling a mile round trip has an error of plus or minus an inch and a half.
Overall you could say that the range of a level of 20 times is 50 meters, 22x.-65mts, 79mts 24x. ", 26x.-92mts, 104mts 28x.", 30x.-115mts, 125mts 32x., but if you use a high magnification level at distances will more easily short to take readings in the state and possibly more accurately, so if for example you want to level a machine, where distances can not exceed 10 meters, would recommend to use the level of 32 increases, for maximum accurately as possible. While the level
only serves to measure slope, have been recently incorporated a graduation in the pan, allowing for measurements of angles with an accuracy of half a degree, being practical in situ to measure or draw angles not require high horizontal accuracy.
There is a parallel flat plate accessory called the accessory or micrometer can measure to the tenth of a millimeter, but can be placed at any level, is recommended only for levels with 32 increases, this accessory is very helpful for jobs that require much accuracy., in some cases is even advisable to use inbar State Authority to eliminate error due to variation in temperature and expansion of the State Authority of aluminum.
laser levels were still a novelty and some people believe
q ue are more precise, but the reality is different, there are only a line projected on a wall, its correct name is crossline are mainly used indoors as outdoors in sunlight is difficult to see the line projected on a wall for example, line which incidentally is between 1 and 2 millimeters wide, so if precision. In one kilometer is 1 centimeter compared to an optical level, laser levels are also holding a sensor, it can be used outdoors and at greater distances, and it is not of the human eye, if not a specialized sensor to see the light laser, there are teams of different prices and details if you purchase a level, make sure that this is a quality and is properly calibrated, otherwise I recommend a level better hose.
not all bad in the laser levels, one of its advantages is that you can use a single person, sets the level at a central point and be measured directly at the points required, also if you have several installers (in frames per example) working at the same time, everyone can have a sensor and be using the same reference at the same time. They are also very practical excavation equipment mounted or flat, eliminating the need to halt the machinery to put a state and make the measurement with a laser level machine operator can know instantly if above or below the desired level .
Finally, there are
electronic levels, these levels function as optical
them, and additional readings can be made electronically coded State Authority bar, it is convenient, since the measurement is very fast, and eliminating reading errors of assessment or even a finger, since they have memory for storing and processing data on the screen can display a resolution of one tenth of mm, and measure distances with a resolution of one centimeter.
Si bien un teodolito o una estación total se puede usar como nivel, las mediciones no serán tan precisas, siendo que el nivel es un instrumento especializado, pero si no requiere gran precisión. Se puede utilizar una estación o un teodolito ajustando el ángulo vertical a 90 grados.
P G S :
Sistema de posicionamiento global (Global Positioning System), there are two types:
NAVEGADORESGPS . These are more for recreational purposes and applications not requiring high precision, consists of a device that fits in the palm of the hand, with integrated antenna, its accuracy may be less than 15 meters, but if he uses the WAAS system can be of less than 3 meters.
addition to providing our position in the horizontal plane may indicate the rise by the same signal from satellites, some models also have a barometer to determine the height to atmospheric pressure.
models have electronic compass that can determine the "direction motion "(path), ie must be in motion to indicate correctly to where the north.
The GPS satellite signal does not require any payment or rent.
GPS TOPOGRAPHIC These teams have details from several millimeters to less than half a meter.
There's a band GPS (L1) and two bands (L1, L2), the difference is that for a band GPS ensures pinpoint accuracy for distances less than 40km between antennas, dual-band GPS is up to 300km, while measurements are distances higher, since not guarantee the accuracy of the readings. The GPS surveying
require two antennas, whether the user has both, or only have one and buy the book to an institution like the INEGI
or Omnistar (DGPS). We then say that you are working in differential mode.
The difference in price of a GPS in a band against a Two bands can be very large, and more so when the two bands incorporated GPS function RTK (Real Time Kinematic). How to work with computers that do not incorporate RTK function is: move the teams to field, do the readings, but only until it returns to cabinet measurements obtained with an RTK system, data are obtained directly in the field and the high price of these devices is incorporating a computer and a radio communication system between the two antennas.
The GPS does not replace the total station in most cases complementary. It is in very large surveys where GPS is particularly useful, since it requires no line of sight between an antenna and another, in addition to the GPS the major constraint to work alone in rooms with view of the sky, being a bit problematic even when vegetation is tall and dense, but for example a forest or forest opening a clear 5 meters and the measurement is made with the antenna, instead of opening a gap to have sight between the station total y el prisma. Así mismo es común hacer el levantamiento de dos puntos con GPS (línea de control) y posteriormente usar la estación y en lugar de introducir coordenadas arbitrarias introducimos coordenadas geográficas, y todo lo que se levante con la estación estará georeferenciado.
Otro aspecto importante es hacer la diferenciación de un sistema de navegación y un sistema de localización o rastreo, el primero permite que la persona que tiene el dispositivo GPS sepa dónde está y para donde ir, para que una tercera persona lo sepa es otra historia eso ya es un sistema de localización, estos sistemas si requieren una renta o cuota mensual, ya que aun cuando usan un GPS, este solo recibe la señal satellites, we need another cell type device to transmit position to a computer connected to the Internet for anyone to access a page and know where the device.
Plumb is a
usually metal weighs so
c onyx or cylindrical
, that by hanging rope marks a vertical
in fact the vertical is defined by this instrument. He also is named a
probe used to measure water depth.
stations is an electric instrument - used in optical topography, which
operation relies on electronic technology. Has an alphanumeric liquid crystal display (LCD) illumination independent of sunlight, has a calculator, EDM, trakeador (follower of experience, stores information in electronic form on various programs, calculates coordinates, restates points and the distance calculation.
Tape
metric
Look the topographic view of chlorine are Perdigo markets are used to line the floor. you must acquire or manufacture parts utlizando straight pipes with a length of about 1.5m, white with red stripes painted 1.55mm in width as shown in Fig. Stakes stick to point at one end fixed to the ground and measures 30 to 40 cm 
